ABSTRACT
This study was to make bio-fertilizers with Azotobacteria and Azospirilum consortiums and to test the influence of bio-fertilizers on Okra plant growth. This investigation was conducted using the soil from the Biological Garden of the University of Cross River State, Calabar. Pure culture and mass production was performed in batch fermentation at optimum condition by means of specific medium for Azospirilum and Azotobacter. Organisms were isolated from the soil samples and confirmed using biochemical tests. The bio-fertilizer effect on the growth parameters of Okra plants was carried out on Day 21. The post germination, phenotypic and observations showed significant differences in performance between plant length, mass, root numbers, root length, total plant length, breadth of leaves, shoot length, root mass and biological yield. The biochemical indices exibited a significant rise (P < 0.05) in chlorophyll content (mg/g.fr. wt) as compared to Control (0.010±0.000), Azospirilum (0.016±0.000), Azotobacter (0.016±0.000) and consortium (0.018±0.000). Significant rise (P<0.05) in carbohydrate content (%) control (51.976±0.768), Azospirilum (69.690±3), Azotobacter (69).656+2), and consortium 70).190± (5). Protein content control (0.028±0.001), Azospirilum (0.040±0.000), Azotobacter (0.060±0.001) and consortium (0.061±0.000) all significantly increased [P< 0.05]. Growth is significantly affected by single injection and control when compared to plants being treated with Azotobacter, Azospirilum or both (P < 0.05). According to the findings, plant mineral fixation through nitrogen fixation and phosphorous solubilization seems to be improved by bio-fertilizer inoculation as well as their mineral nutrition’s improvement.

ABSTRACT
Background: Previous studies have looked at suitability of Arabica coffee with less emphasis on Robusta coffee. Secondly, they looked at coffee suitability in terms of temperature and rainfall. Methods: This study examined the effect of climate change on soil moisture content for coffee growing in Uganda, using historical (1990-2022) and projected (2025-2050) data from Terraclimate and eight Global Climate Models (GCMs). Soil moisture was analyzed in relation to coffee crop moisture thresholds at the root zone to simulate historical and future coffee suitability under two scenarios: Shared Socio-economic Pathways (SSPs) 245 and 585. Results: Soil moisture content in Uganda was characterized by high variability in highland areas during the March to May season among years. Furthermore, there were both decreasing and increasing trends averaging at ±1mm/Month. The future was on the other hand dominated by increasing trends over the western region and eastern-northern regions under SSP245 and SSP585 respectively averaging at 0.2mm/Month. Suitability analysis for 1990-2022 revealed that 71% of Uganda was highly suitable for coffee, while future predictions indicated an increase in suitable areas to 74% under SSP245 and 81% under SSP585. Conclusion: Generally, the higher moisture content associated with climate change will result in increased suitability of coffee by 10%, however, characterized by shifting area suitability especially for the mid-northern and south western regions where a reduction and gain in suitability is expected, respectively. This study highly the importance of identification and adaptation of site-specific soil moisture conservation practices, especially in the unsuitable areas.

ABSTRACT
Shallots are gaining importance in the Ilocos region, due to their culinary uses in traditional cuisine, medicinal properties, and export potential. However, the reduction of inherent soil fertility and the manifestation of multiple nutrient deficiencies have led to low yields which is 13.70% lower than the national average. Consequently, researchers and farmers are aware in the improvement of shallot production in the region. This study, conducted from March, 2023 to February, 2024, at Mariano Marcos State University using a Strip-Split-Plot design with three replicates and analyzed using STAR. Planting distances as vertical plot, boron application as horizontal plot, and fertilizer level as the subplot. The study aimed to evaluate the influence of planting distances on yield performance of shallots, and to develop better nutrient management strategies for optimal shallot production. To optimized shallot productivity per land unit area, particularly during the off-season, it is recommended to adopt closer planting distances of 15cm x 10cm combined with the application of 30-30-30 kgha⁻¹ NP₂O₅K₂O and 5 tha⁻¹ of organic fertilizer. This technique has been shown to produce higher yields, reaching up to 17.39 tha⁻¹. Additionally, pure organic fertilizer application at a rate of 7.5 tha⁻¹ during the off-season is also recommended, as it has demonstrated high yields of 16.12 tha⁻¹ when using the same planting distance of 15 cm x 10 cm. This approach not only increases yield but also improves soil health, making it a sustainable option for long-term cultivation. For the regular season, planting distances of 20 cm x 10 cm and 15 cm x 15 cm, applied with 60-60-60 kg ha⁻¹ NP₂O₅K₂O and 2.5 tons ha⁻¹ of organic fertilizer, are recommended, as they have produced yields of up to 29.4 tons ha⁻¹. While pure inorganic fertilizer results in high yields during the regular season, a combination of organic and inorganic fertilizers is preferred to enhance soil health and prevent soil d

ABSTRACT
One such novel technology is nanotechnology, which has been revolutionized in health care, textile, materials, information and communication technology, and energy sectors too. There are many ways depicted in various literatures to synthesize silver nanoparticles. These include physical, chemical, and biological methods. The physical and chemical methods are numerous in number, and many of these methods are expensive or use toxic substances which are major factors that make them “not so favored” methods of synthesis. An alternate, feasible method to synthesize silver nanoparticles is to employ biological methods of using microbes and plants. Biotechnology has considered a safe agricultural tool to enhance crop protection, subsequently to produce more agricultural products, improve food process, nutritional value, and better flavor. Side by side it has detrimental ecological consequences such as spreading genetically engineered genes to indigenous plants, elevated toxicity, which may transmit through food chain, disrupting nature’s system of pest control, developing new weeds or virus strains, biodiversity loss, and insecticidal resistance (Goswami et al., 2010). Hence, it is necessary to bring forth new innovative technology/methods to overcome the above mentioned problems. The potential application of biogenic nanoparticles as antimicrobial agents will be also reviewed. The mechanism of action of nanoparticles as bactericidal and antifungal agents will be highlighted in this chapter.

ABSTRACT
The Pseudomonas fluorescens isolate FP 7 was found to protect the tomato plants against soil borne fungus, Pythium aphanidermatum. The ability to induce defense proteins viz. -1,3 glucanase, peroxidase (PO), polyphenol oxidase (PPO) and phenylalanine ammonia lyase (PAL) by this P. fluorescens isolate FP 7 against P. aphanidermatum fungus was further studied. Increased activity of PO, PPO and -1,3 glucanase were observed in plants pretreated with FP 7 isolate. Native PAGE (polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis) of PO showed the single isoform in all the treatment including the control and difference is by the increased intensity of the band in the inoculated control and FP 7 treatment in the tomato plant. Isoform analysis of the PPO showed the induction of the PPO in the P. fluorescens treated plants challenged with P. aphanidermatum. -1,3 glucanase in tomato cultivar, Co 3 with and without challenge inoculation of P. aphanidermatum, revealed changes in the isoform pattern after staining the gel with 2,3,5-triphenyl tetrazolium chloride. Moreover, higher accumulation of phenolics was noticed in plants pretreated with P. fluorescens isolate FP 7 challenged with P. aphanidermatum. The relevant function of Thaumatin like defense proteins and secondary metabolites involved in the phenylpropanoid pathway collectively contributing to enhanced resistance is discussed.

ABSTRACT
The intact, healthy plant is a community of cells built in a fortress-like fashion. Plant cells consist of cell wall contains the nucleus and various organelles and all the substances for which the pathogens attack them. The cytoplasm and the organelles it contains are separated from each other by membranes that carry various types of proteins embedded in them (Fig. 5-2). The plant surfaces that come in contact with the environment either consist of cellulose, as in the epidermal cells of roots and in the intercellular spaces of leaf parenchyma cells, or consist of a cuticle that covers the epidermal cell walls, as is the case in the aerial parts of plants. Often an additional layer, consisting of waxes, is deposited outside the cuticle, especially on younger parts of plants Pathogens attack plants because during their evolutionary development they have acquired the ability to live off the substances manufactured by the host plants, and some of the pathogens depend on these substances for survival. Many substances are contained in the protoplast of the plant cells, however, and if pathogens are to gain access to them they must first penetrate the outer barriers formed by the cuticle and/or cell walls. Even after the outer cell wall has been penetrated, further invasion of the plant by the pathogen necessitates the penetration of more cell walls. Furthermore, the plant cell contents are not always found in forms immediately utilizable by the pathogen and must be broken down to units that the pathogen can absorb and assimilate. Moreover, the plant, reacting to the presence and activities of the pathogen, produces structures and chemical substances that interfere with the advance or the existence of the pathogen; if the pathogen is to survive and to continue living off the plant, it must be able to overcome such obstacles. Therefore, for a pathogen to infect a plant it must be able to make its way into and through the plant, obtain nutrients from the plant, and neutral

ABSTRACT
The field study was applied in a clay loam soil in Al-Karamah (Al-Hamza Al-Sharqi, Diwaniyah Province) for the period October 1, 2022 to June 20, 2023. The aim of study was to evaluate the use of irrigation with treated wastewater on the Medicago Sativa during the summer and winter seasons. The results indicated a significant difference when using treated wastewater during the winter season compared to wastewater during the summer season. It was recorded a significant increase when the plants were exposed to irrigation with wastewater during the winter season for a period of not less than four months, as it gave the best results in the average vegetative and root characteristics. The average number and length of branches, number of leaves, root length, and weight of the fresh and dry vegetative and root group were 18.80 branches/plant, 60.40 cm, 144.63 leaves per branch, 34.08 cm, 72.92 g, 11.36 g, 65.37 g, 9.98 g, respectively, compared to wastewater during the summer season, which gave weak and thin plants that lacked the necessary nutrients for growth. The average vegetative and root characteristics of the plants were the lowest when irrigated with wastewater during the summer season. As for the estimation of the concentration of heavy metals including zinc, copper, cobalt, lead and cadmium in the plant, it did not reach the harmful limit according to the known standards of the Organization (FAO). The samples of the M. Sativa irrigated with wastewater during the summer season gave the highest significant increase in the concentration of heavy metals in this plant Zn, Cu, Co, Pb, as they reached 76.43, 62.31, 10.78, 10.78 µg/g dry weight respectively compared to the samples irrigated with wastewater during the winter season. It was also noted that the Cd metal did not have any significant effect in the M. Sativa plant samples irrigated with treated wastewater during the summer and winter seasons.